Worried where your EV’s pack ends up? If you’re asking how are EV batteries recycled, the short answer is this: packs are dismantled, shredded, then treated with chemicals or heat to recover nickel, cobalt and lithium.
This guide is one of several on electric vehicles on this site.
| Item | Value |
|---|---|
| Nickel, cobalt and lithium recovery, hydrometallurgical recycling | 90-99% |
| Direct recycling recovery | 90% nickel and cobalt, 50% lithium |
| Smelting temperature at which metals melt | above 1,400 degrees Celsius |
| Typical EV battery lifespan | usually 10-20 years |
| US battery lead recycled, 2018 | 99% |
| Lithium-ion batteries recycled, 2013 estimate | about 5% |
The figures come from the Union of Concerned Scientists and a PNAS news feature. Recovery rates and estimates can change as technology improves, so check the sources before you rely on them.
What happens before recycling starts
An old EV pack can’t simply go to a landfill. The PNAS feature notes that lithium-ion batteries can overheat and burst into flames, and that left in a landfill they could leach toxic metals into the environment.
So the pack goes through a preparation stage first, which the Union of Concerned Scientists describes in these steps:
- A car dismantler removes the battery from the EV and ships it to a battery recycler.
- The recycler takes the pack apart into smaller modules, which fit together like a box of dominoes.
- For the chemical and direct routes, modules or cells go through a mechanical shredder.
- Sifters, magnets and shaker tables isolate a powder containing lithium, cobalt and nickel, called black mass.
Smelting skips the shredding, because that route burns the whole battery once it has been broken down to module or cell level. If you’re curious what those cells actually do, the guide on how do electric car batteries work explains the basics.
The three main recycling methods
Recyclers use three broad families of process. Each one trades off how much it recovers, what it costs the environment, and what kind of battery it suits.
Hydrometallurgical recycling
Hydrometallurgy uses liquid chemistry. The black mass is dissolved in a liquid, typically hydrogen peroxide and sulfuric acid, in a step called leaching, and the metals are then pulled out of the solution, for example by solvent extraction.
The Union of Concerned Scientists lists recovery rates of 90-99% for nickel, cobalt and lithium, and says one company reports 99% for cathode materials. Its post of October 25, 2023 called this the best available technology because of those recovery rates and its low environmental impact.
The process does leave waste to manage. Wastewater must go through water treatment, and the process creates a large quantity of sodium sulfate, a low-value and safe byproduct used to make household items such as detergent.
Pyrometallurgical recycling (smelting)
Pyrometallurgy relies on intense heat. According to the PNAS feature, used batteries are dismantled and crushed, then heated, usually above 500 degrees Celsius. That evaporates the liquid part of the electrolyte and leaves the lithium salts behind.
Above 1,400 degrees Celsius, metals such as cobalt, nickel, copper and iron melt and can be recovered. Lithium often remains in the slag and is difficult to extract.
The Union of Concerned Scientists ranks smelting as the least ideal option as of its October 25, 2023 post. It says the route does not recover lithium, aluminum or manganese and has the highest environmental impact.
Direct recycling
Direct recycling aims to keep the cathode intact instead of breaking it into separate elements. It creates a rejuvenated positive electrode ready for manufacturing a new battery, and per the Union of Concerned Scientists’ October 25, 2023 post it was still in development.
The same post lists recovery of 90% for nickel and cobalt but only 50% for lithium. Because the recovered cathode has lost lithium during its first life, more has to be added in a step called relithiation.
Methods often overlap
These labels are not always isolated, one-step choices. EVKX’s battery recycling dictionary entry says a plant may combine mechanical preparation, thermal treatment and aqueous refining, and that no family is universally best.
Why battery chemistry changes the answer
Not every pack holds the same metals, and that decides which method pays off. The Union of Concerned Scientists says hydrometallurgy is ideal for batteries containing nickel and cobalt.
- Nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) packs: valuable metals make chemical recovery worthwhile. Direct recycling is most applicable to waste coming straight from manufacturing, because the electrode’s crystal structure is damaged during use.
- Lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP) packs: cheap inputs make recovering individual minerals through hydrometallurgy uneconomical. Direct recycling suits them because it recovers the whole positive electrode.
- Manufacturing scrap: factory waste is the other ideal feed for direct recycling.
EVKX adds that direct routes generally need better knowledge and control of the incoming chemistry and condition, which is why mixed or contaminated feed makes them harder.
Can a battery be reused before it is recycled?
Often, yes. The PNAS feature describes two options: reusing a pack in less-demanding applications, such as golf carts or grid storage, or recycling it.
The same feature says EV batteries have a limited lifespan, usually 10-20 years. Lifespan also feeds into ownership costs, which the guide on are electric cars cheaper to maintain covers.
How much gets recycled, and what is still hard?
Nobody has a clean number. An oft-cited 2013 report estimated that only about 5% of lithium-ion batteries were recycled, but the PNAS feature says global rates are hard to estimate because companies define EV battery recycling differently and most recycling happens in China, where there is little access to such information.
Lead-acid car batteries show what is possible. The same feature reports that the US Environmental Protection Agency estimated 99% of battery lead in the United States was recycled in 2018, the most recent year studied. Lithium-ion packs are harder, since they are more complex and have more components to disassemble.
Open problems the feature raises include:
- Today’s methods are described as expensive, detrimental to the environment and inefficient.
- Common methods focus on cobalt, nickel and lithium, while copper, aluminum and the electrolyte are not fully reckoned with.
- Scaling up existing processes without fixing these issues could magnify the problems.
Frequently asked questions
Can an EV battery go in a landfill?
Show answer
No. The PNAS feature says lithium-ion batteries can’t simply be thrown into landfills, partly because they can overheat and burst into flames.
Which recycling method is best?
Show answer
It depends on the battery. The Union of Concerned Scientists called hydrometallurgy the best available technology in its October 25, 2023 post, while EVKX says no family is universally best.
What is black mass?
Show answer
It is the powder left after shredded batteries are sifted and separated. It contains lithium, cobalt and nickel, according to the Union of Concerned Scientists.
Are EV batteries recycled as often as lead-acid batteries?
Show answer
Not by the available estimates. A 2013 report put lithium-ion recycling at about 5%, against 99% of US battery lead in 2018, though the PNAS feature cautions that global lithium-ion rates are hard to estimate.
